The 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month holds profound significance in American history, marking the end of World War I and symbolising a national moment of remembrance and commitment to peace.
On November 11, 1918, an armistice between Allied forces and Germany went into effect, ending hostilities in “the war to end all wars.” In the United States, this historic date eventually evolved into Veterans Day, a holiday honouring all military veterans.
When the Armistice of World War I took effect at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month in 1918, a deadly and transformative conflict finally came to a halt. World War I had lasted four brutal years, reshaping nations, economies, and societies.
The U.S., though involved for only a brief part of the war, was profoundly impacted. American forces made significant contributions to the Allied victory, and the sacrifices of American soldiers were felt deeply at home in America.
General John J. Pershing, known as "Black Jack" Pershing, was one of America’s most significant military leaders during World War I.
Born in Missouri in 1860, Pershing had a military career that spanned several conflicts and included roles as an educator, tactician, and military leader. His career is marked by his disciplined approach, strategic insight, and the controversial decisions he made at the end of World War I.
Pershing graduated from West Point in 1886 and began his career in the Indian Wars, then moved on to various postings, including commanding African American troops in the 10th Cavalry Regiment, which earned him his nickname "Black Jack." He served in the Spanish-American War and the Philippine-American War, where his leadership and tactical abilities became evident. Pershing's military prowess and his ability to lead diverse units gained him respect among both his peers and subordinates.
One of Pershing’s notable experiences prior to WWI was his pursuit of Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa in 1916 after Villa’s raid on Columbus, New Mexico. This mission, though ultimately inconclusive, helped shape Pershing's perspective on mobilisation and logistics, skills that would prove essential in Europe.
When the U.S. entered WWI in 1917, Pershing was appointed to lead the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in Europe. President Woodrow Wilson and the War Department wanted an experienced, resolute leader who could manage a vast multinational coalition in a highly challenging environment, and Pershing was a natural choice.
Pershing faced immense pressure to amalgamate U.S. troops into British and French forces, as these Allied armies were already battle-hardened but significantly weakened. However, Pershing insisted on maintaining an independent American fighting force. He believed U.S. soldiers, often referred to as "doughboys," would be more effective under American command and that their morale would suffer if they were simply absorbed into Allied units. This insistence on independence was controversial but ultimately allowed American forces to operate as a fresh, unified body, giving the Allies a crucial advantage in the final offensives.
Under Pershing’s command, the AEF played a key role in major battles, including the Saint-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne offensives, which contributed significantly to the Allies' eventual victory. Pershing’s strategy involved aggressive, direct assaults, which, while costly, were effective in weakening German forces and regaining territory. His leadership style emphasised discipline, tenacity, and endurance—qualities that he also demanded from his troops. His focus on maintaining U.S. autonomy in the conflict underscored his vision of America’s growing role on the world stage.
The Armistice of November 11, 1918, marked the official end of hostilities, but Pershing’s approach to this event was highly controversial. Pershing was among those who believed the German army should be forced into an unconditional surrender, fearing that a mere ceasefire could lead to a resurgence of German military ambition. He argued that a negotiated armistice did not fully settle the conflict, as it left the door open for German denial of defeat and eventual retaliation, a sentiment later echoed by those who saw the Treaty of Versailles as insufficient to secure lasting peace.
This perspective led Pershing to make decisions that have been widely debated. For instance, he continued to authorise attacks on German positions until the exact moment of the Armistice. On the morning of November 11, many American soldiers were ordered to advance despite knowing that the Armistice would take effect at 11:00 AM. This decision resulted in thousands of casualties, a move criticised as unnecessary and heart-wrenching, considering the impending ceasefire. Pershing’s critics argue that he put honour above human lives, a point that remains a contentious part of his legacy.
After WWI, Pershing returned to the U.S. as a national hero and was promoted to the highest rank ever awarded in the U.S. Army - General of the Armies, a title he would hold for life. He also wrote a memoir, My Experiences in the World War, which won a Pulitzer Prize. Pershing’s influence extended beyond his lifetime, as he left a significant impact on military strategy, the role of American forces on the world stage, and the development of the post-war U.S. Army.
Pershing's legacy is complex. He is celebrated for his commitment to military discipline and his successful leadership in WWI but remains controversial for the high costs associated with his decisions, particularly during the closing hours of the war. His insistence on unconditional surrender set a tone that some historians believe contributed to the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which some argue sowed the seeds for World War II. Pershing’s career thus stands as a testament to the high stakes of military command, where strategy and morality often intersect in challenging, far-reaching ways.
While Armistice Day originally honoured only the veterans of World War I, it took on greater significance as further conflicts arose. Following World War II and the Korean War, the need to recognise veterans from other conflicts became evident. By the early 1950s, Americans saw the holiday as an opportunity to express gratitude to all veterans, regardless of the specific conflict in which they served. In 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed a bill officially renaming Armistice Day to Veterans Day, making November 11 a day to honour all military veterans, both living and deceased.
